Meaning Is Healthier Than Happiness[A] For at least the last decade, the happiness craze has been building. In the last three months alone, over 1, 000 books on happiness were released on Amazon, including Happy Money, Happy-People-Pills For All, and, for those just starting out, Happiness for Beginners.[B] One of the consistent claims of books like these is that happiness is associated with all sorts of good life outcomes, including—most promisingly—good health. Many studies have noted the connection between a happy mind and a healthy body—the happier we are, the better health outcomes we seem to have. In an overview of 150 studies on this topic, researchers put it like this: "Inductions of well-being lead to healthy functioning, and inductions of ill-being lead to compromised health."[C] But a new study, just published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences （PNAS） challenges the rosy picture. Happiness may not be as good for the body as researchers thought. It might even be bad.[D] Of course, it's important to first define happiness. A few months ago, I wrote a piece called "There's More to Life Than Being Happy" about a psychology study that dug into what happiness really means to people. It specifically explored the difference between a meaningful life and a happy life.[E] It seems strange that there would be a difference at all. But the researchers, who looked at a large sample of people over a month-long period, found that happiness is associated with selfish "taking" behavior and that having a sense of meaning in life is associated with selfless "giving" behavior.[F] "Happiness without meaning characterizes a relatively shallow, self-absorbed or even selfish life, in which things go well, needs and desire are easily satisfied, and complicated relationships are avoided, " the authors of the study wrote. "If anything, pure happiness is linked to not helping others in need." While being happy is about feeling good, meaning is derived from contributing to others or to society in a bigger way. As Roy Baumeister, one of the researchers, told me, "Partly what we do as human beings is to take care of others and contribute to others. This makes life meaningful but it does not necessarily make us happy."[G] The new PNAS study also sheds light on the difference between meaning and happiness, but on the biological level. Barbara Fredrickson, a psychological researcher at the University. of North Carolina-Chapel Hill, and Steve Cole, a genetics and psychiatry （精神病学） researcher at UCLA, examined the self-reported levels of happiness and meaning in 80 research subjects.[H] Happiness was defined, as in the earlier study, by feeling good. The researchers measured happiness by asking questions like "How often did you feel happy? " "How often did you feel interested in life? " and "How often did you feel satisfied? " The more strongly people endorsed these measures of "hedonic （享乐主义的） well-being, " or pleasure, the higher they scored on happiness.[I] Meaning was defined as an orientation to something bigger than the self. They measured meaning by asking questions like "How often did you feel that your life has a sense of direction or meaning to it? " , "How often did you feel that you had something to contribute to society? ", and "How often did you feel that you belonged to a community/social group? " The more people endorsed these measures of "eudaimonic （幸福论的） well-being" —or, simply put, virtue—the more meaning they felt in life.[J] After noting the sense of meaning and happiness that each subject had, Fredrickson and Cole, with their research colleagues, looked at the ways certain genes expressed themselves in each of the participants. Like neuroscientists who use fMRI （功能磁共振成像） scanning to determine how regions in the brain respond to different stimuli, Cole and Fredrickson are interested in how the body, at the genetic level, responds to feelings of happiness and meaning.[K] Cole's past work has linked various kinds of chronic adversity to a particular gene expression pattern. When people feel lonely, are grieving the loss of a loved one, or are struggling to make ends meet, their bodies go into threat mode. This triggers the activation of a stress-related gene pattern that has two features: an increase in the activity of pro-inflammatory （促炎症的） genes and a decrease in the activity of genes involved in anti-viral responses.[L] Cole and Fredrickson found that people who are happy but have little to no sense of meaning in their lives have the same gene expression patterns as people who are responding to and enduring chronic adversity. That is, the bodies of these happy people are preparing them for bacterial threats by activating the pro-inflammatory response. Chronic inflammation is, of course, associated with major illnesses like heart disease and various cancers.[M] "Empty positive emotions" —like the kind people experience during （狂喜的） episodes or artificially induced euphoria （欣快） from alcohol and drugs—"are about as good for you as adversity, " says Fredrickson.[N] It's important to understand that for many people, a sense of meaning and happiness in life overlap; many people score jointly high （or jointly low） on the happiness and meaning measures in the study. But for many others, there is a dissonance （不一致） —they feel that they are low on happiness and high on meaning or that their lives are very high in happiness, but low in meaning. This last group, which has the gene expression pattern associated with adversity, formed 75 percent of study participants. Only one quarter of the study participants had what the researchers call "eudaimonic predominance" —that is, their sense of meaning outpaced their feelings of happiness.[O] This is too bad given the more beneficial gene expression pattern associated with meaningfulness. People whose levels of happiness and meaning line up, and people who have a strong sense of meaning but are not necessarily happy, showed a de-activation of the adversity stress response. Their bodies were not preparing them for the bacterial infections that we get when we are alone or in trouble, but for the viral infections we get when surrounded by a lot of other people.[P] Fredrickson's past research, described in her two books, Positivity and Love 2.0, has mapped the benefits of positive emotions in individuals. She has found that positive emotions broaden a person's perspective and help protect people against adversity. So it was surprising to her that hedonistic well-being, which is associated with positive emotions and pleasure, did so badly in this study compared with eudaimonic well-being.[Q] "It's not the amount of hedonic happiness that's a problem, " Fredrickson tells me, "It's that it's not matched by eudaimonic well-being. It's great when both are in step. But if you have more hedonic well-being than would be expected, that's when this [gene] pattern that's similar to adversity emerged."[R] The terms hedonism and eudaimonism bring to mind the great philosophical debate, which has shaped Western civilization for over 2, 000 years, about the nature of the good life. Does happiness lie in feeling good, as hedonists think, or in doing and being good, as Aristotle and his intellectual descendants, the virtue ethicists （伦理学家）, think? From the evidence of this study, it seems that feeling good is not enough. People need meaning to thrive. In the words of Carl Jung, "The least of things with a meaning is worth more in life than the greatest of things without it." Jung's wisdom certainly seems to apply to our bodies, if not also to our hearts and our minds.The author's recent article examined how a meaningful life is different from a happy life. It should be noted that many people feel their life is both happy and meaningful. According to one survey, there is a close relationship between hedonic well-being measures and high scores on happy. According to one of the authors of a new study, what makes life meaningful may not make people happy. Experiments were carried out to determine our body's genetic expression of feelings of happiness and meaning. A new study claims happiness may not contribute to health. According to the researchers, taking makes for happiness while giving adds meaning to life. Evidence from research shows that it takes meaning for people to thrive. With regard to gene expression patterns, happy people with little or no sense of meaning in life are found to be similar to those suffering from chronic adversity. Most books on happiness today assert that happiness is beneficial to health.