Negotiating Skills Can Be Learned Managers negotiate continuously, with superiors, subordinates, peers and clients. Researchers and practitioners have observed that former organizational structures and behaviors are now giving way to new organizational models in which authority, commands and control along with fixed roles play a lesser, or at least a less definite, role. The crucial role of negotiation, meanwhile, is gaining prominence. Globalization, market deregulation, and technological changes, along with increasing interdependence and market complexity, have contributed to increasing the instances when conscious negotiation is preferable to other forms of interaction. Coupled with the increase in the use of negotiation have been advances in the theory of negotiation and the fast growth in the number of publications on the subject. Gilles Gauthier, full professor at the Institut d’economie appliquee (IEA) at the Hautes etudes commereiales (HEC), teaches the course "Managers and Negotiation" for students and professionals. No such course existed when he was doing his studies in the 1960s. Gauthier is self-taught in the field and has become a specialist. He believes negotiation is an important component and integral part of management. He found that the only courses offered on the topic involved collective agreement negotiations. "Not all managers are involved in negotiating such agreements. What most managers do is much broader in scope," adds Gauthier. He decided to take a year’s leave to read up on the topic and investigate what was happening elsewhere. Gauthier found out that few universities offered training in negotiating. Training in the field was initially designed for lawyers and tended to promote an adversarial style of engagement. Some schools offered management or conflict resolution courses. For Gauthier, negotiation doesn’t necessarily involve a conflict, just a disagreement. His research motivated him to design the course mentioned above, which has been part of the MBA program at the HEC for two years now. It is also offered in the HEC’s continuing education program for professionals who want to learn more about these concepts.Strategic limits For Gauthier, negotiation is a process whereby at least two parties have to reach an agreement. It’s a way of making a decision where each party has a fight of veto. He adds that there are all kinds of negotiations, not just contracts. There are negotiations with other administrative units, even family negotiations. The definition of negotiation varies, but Francois Delivre’s definition seems fairly comprehensive: Negotiation is a process for managing disagreements with a view to achieving contractual satisfaction of needs. Negotiation is a process, that is, a method that consists of a number of steps, a method for managing disagreements, because the two parties could not initially agree to satisfy their needs to their mutual satisfaction. It is therefore a desire to achieve contractual satisfaction, because the goal is to establish an agreement specifying the nature of the exchange. All authors agree that negotiation is a process. Gauthier says that some people always negotiate in exactly the same way, whether they’re at the office or at home, even if the context is different. He says that’s a big mistake. Understanding the context and good preparation are vital to the success of any negotiation. Gauthier explains that there is more than one way of negotiating. He’s currently writing a book outlining 1,200 negotiating tactics, which are not necessarily appropriate for all situations or strategies. Tactics differ from strategies. The latter refers to the type of approach one takes to a negotiation― generally these fall into two main camps, either a collaborative or a competitive approach. Tactics help achieve a specific strategy.Negotiating models Gauthier advises negotiators to have a strategy from the outset, whether competitive (winner ― loser), cooperative (win-win), compromise (win a little-win a little), inaction (so as not to lose today), accommodation (lose now to win later) or withdrawal (negotiate elsewhere where you can Win). Many negotiators have used and continue to use a competitive approach, even a confrontational approach, in their negotiations. Any success in such cases is more often than not short-lived. Manipulative behavior and power tripping generally lead to failure. Competition leads to power straggles (蔓延) in negotiation. So the parties to the negotiation can easily get involved in power tripping. A person initiates a power trip when he or she has every intention of exercising his or her authority or desire to dominate by forcing the other party to take a complementary position. There is no choice but victory or defeat. This approach taken by one or both of the negotiators obviously confines the possible outcome significantly. Whenever one of the parties uses a disrespectful tone of voice, presents ultimatums or refuses to participate for fear of losing face, the situation is confrontational and positions are strongly established. The negotiation is blocked and destined to fail, even if one of the parties seems to have won. It’s a one-side victory, short term, which will result in a boomerang (自食其果) effect. The party that lost will be looking to revenge. In a number of cooperative negotiating Styles such as win-win or compromise negotiation, the focus is on mutual respect and reasoned deliberation. Once the strategy is clear, the next step is to choose the appropriate tactics. Good preparation means determining precise objectives from the start, understanding the other party (past negotiating style, type of negotiator, etc) and using professionals to obtain the maximum amount of useful data about the position of the other party.Soft skills The most effective negotiators are those who succeed in reaching an agreement that allows each party to achieve their original objectives. If the objectives of the two parties are completely contradictory and have no chance of being tempered to reach a sound agreement, negotiators should be prepared to walk away. A winner will know from the start what he or she will do if the negotiations fail. A loser will not have thought this through. Some people can adapt to all kinds of situations. They make excellent negotiators. Others have a less flexible personality, which is a problem because their personality limits their response. "Negotiators have to be able to lead the process," says Gauthier. All parties involved in negotiations have to be skilled at leading such a process. Research in negotiation carried out in the past 15 years at Harvard University has shown that "the most successful negotiators are those who define success not as beating their adversaries but as doing the best they can for themselves." The compromise that results from cooperation will not lead to the greatest possible gain; it requires a shared sacrifice. Negotiation is all about interpersonal communication. The rapport (融洽和谐的关系) in interpersonal communication should favor responsibility and cooperation, thereby establishing an environment in which the parties feel like they are interdependent and part of a partnership. The ability to do this is a skill that has to be learned. Learning requires an open, inquisitive attitude. Rigid positions, confrontations, ineffective principles, and confrontational or manipulative strategies have to be avoided. The goal is to establish a sense of solidarity, and create bridges that will lead to satisfactory solutions for both parties. Constructive dialogue means showing the other party what part of their argument is compatible with the problem to be resolved. Understanding the other person’s position doesn’t mean agreeing with their position,. but rather respecting it, and remaining flexible in exploring options. Recognizing that negotiation can be learned is a relatively new concept. Those who believe they are good negotiators may well be in for a surprise, because many managers are studying negotiating tactics and are not afraid to put them to the test. Understanding how to prepare yourself for negotiations will help you succeed without creating an adversarial relationship with the other party―an essential skill in ongoing business relationships.According to Francois Delivre’s definition of negotiation, ______. A. it’s a way of making a decision where each party has a fight of vetoB. it’s a method to make two parties reach an agreement in the beginningC. it’s a process during which a contract must be signed by two partiesD. it’s a desire of both parties to achieve contractual satisfaction