C In 1851, Auguste Comte, the French philosopher and father of sociology, coined the new word altruism as part of a drive to create a non-religious religion based on scientific principles. He defined it as "intentional action for the welfare of others that involves at least the possibility of either no benefit or a loss to the actor". At that time, studies of animal behavior and phrenology(颅相学) led him to locate egotistical(自我本位的) instincts at the back of the brain, altruistic ones at the front. Today, we have a far more sophisticated knowledge of the neurological(神经学的) and biochemical factors that underpin kind behavior. And this science forms the bases of two books aimed at general readers — but also at those who, despite the research, still doubt the existence of altruism. However, the books may end up providing more information for those who are doubtful. Take The Altruistic Brain by neuroscientist Donald Pfaff. On solid scientific ground, he builds a five-step theory of how altruism occurs, which depends on an idea that is unconvincing and may achieve the opposite result. Pfaff argues that to act altruistically you should first visualize the receiver of your good will, then mentally transform their image into your own, "from angle to angle and curve to curve". Does it really work? At the core of evolutionary biologist David Sloan Wilson's Does Altruism Exist? is another contentious(有争议的) idea: altruism has evolved as the result of group selection. But Wilson argues his corner masterfully, providing a clever reply to the belief that natural selection occurs only at the level of the selfish gene: "Selfishness beats altruism within groups. Altruistic groups beat selfish groups," he says. In other words, we cooperate when doing so gives our team the advantage. That doesn't sound very selfless either. Wilson acknowledges this, but argues that thoughts and feelings are less important than actions. According to evolutionary theory, pure altruists do exist, but it doesn't matter why people choose to help others — their reasons may be difficult even for themselves to understand. What matters is that humans can coordinate their activities in just the right way to achieve common goals. Other animals do this too, but we are masters. "Teamwork is the signature adaptation of our species," he says. Pfaff goes further, insisting that our brain biology "urges us to be kind". He believes this knowledge alone will inspire individuals to be more altruistic. His desire to create a better world is admirable and some of his ideas are interesting, but Wilson's analysis is clearer. While it is in our nature to be altruistic, Wilson says, we also have a healthy regard for self-interest and a resistance to being pushed around. Which one comes to the fore depends on the environment in which we find ourselves. Ethics, he says, cannot be taught at individual level, but are "a property of the whole system". 1. Which of the following can be considered an altruistic behaviour according to Comte's definition? A: person offers to donate his liver to another who needs one. B: clerk returns the umbrella to his colleague which he has kept for a long time. C: student volunteers to work in the orphanage to collect data for his research. D: police officer spots a car parking in the no-parking area, finding a child in the trunk. 2. What does Donald Pfaff think people should do in order to behave altruistically? A: Draw a picture of the person they are going to help. B: Transform the receiver into a kind person. C: Visualize what they are going to do in mind first. D: Imagine they themselves are to be helped. 3. Which of the following statements is David Sloan most likely to agree with in his book? A: Being kind is not something people are born with. B: People in groups are less likely to be selfish. C: People may well act selflessly because of where they are. D: Most people know clearly why they are ready to help others. 4. What can be concluded from the passage? A: Figuring out what makes us behave selflessly is a tricky business. B: Unlike Donald Pfaff's book, David Sloan's book aims at professional readers. C: Comte's definition of altruism proves to be impractical in modern times. D: Both Donald Pfaff and David Sloan lay emphasis on team work.